Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge AC 61-23C (FAA Edition)

TABLE of CONTENTS

FORCES ACTING ON THE AIRPLANE IN FLIGHT 1-1

Terms and Definitions
Lift
Gravity (Weight)
Thrust
Drag
Induced Drag
Parasite Drag
Relationship Between Angle of Attack and Lift
Relationship of Thrust and Drag in Straight-and-Level Flight
Relationship Between Lift and Weight in Straight-and-Level Flight
Factors Affecting Lift and Drag
Effect of Wing Area on Lift and Drag
Effect of Airfoil Shape on Lift and Drag
Effect of Wing Design on Stall
Effect of Airspeed on Lift and Drag
Effect of Air Density on Lift and Drag

TURNING TENDENCY (TORQUE EFFECT) 1-9

Torque Reaction
Spiraling Slipstream
Gyroscopic Precession
Asymmetric Propeller Loading ("P" Factor)
Corrections for Turning Tendency or Torque During Flight

AIRPLANE STABILITY 1-11

Positive Stability
Neutral Stability
Negative Stability
Longitudinal Stability about the Lateral Axis
Longitudinal Control (Pitch) about the Lateral Axis
Lateral Stability about the Longitudinal Axis
Dihedral
Sweepback
Keel Effect
Lateral Control about the Longitudinal Axis
Lateral Stability or Instability in Turns
Directional Stability about the Vertical Axis (YAW)
Directional Control about the Vertical Axis (YAW)

LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS 1-17

Load Factors and Airplane Design
Effect of Turns on Load Factor
Effect of Load Factor on Stalling Speed
Effect of Speed on Load Factor
Effect of Flight Maneuvers on Load Factor
Effect of Turbulence on Load Factor
Determining Load Factors in Flight
Forces Acting on the Airplane when at Airspeeds Slower than Cruise
Forces in a Climb
Forces in a Glide
Turns During Flight

CHAPTER 2 AIRPLANE STRUCTURE AND ENGINES:

AIRPLANE STRUCTURE 2-1

FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS 2-1

Wing Flaps
Landing Gear
Conventional Landing Gear
Tricycle Landing Gear

THE ELECTRICAL SYSTEM 2-3

ENGINE OPERATION 2-5

How an Engine Operates
Cooling System
Ignition System
Fuel System
Fuel Tanks, Selectors, Strainers, and Drains
Fuel Primer
Fuel Pressure Gauge
Induction, Carburetion, and Injection Systems
Carburetor System
Mixture Control
Carburetor Icing
Conditions Conducive to Carburetor Icing
Indications of Carburetor Icing
Use of Carburetor Heat
Carburetor Air Temperature Gauge
Outside Air Temperature Gauge
Fuel Injection System
Proper Fuel is Essential
Fuel Contamination
Refueling Procedures
Oil System

THE PROPELLER 2-14

Fixed-Pitch Propeller
Controllable-Pitch Propellers

THE ENGINE:

STARTING THE ENGINE 2-17

Engines Equipped with a Starter
Engines Not Equipped with a Starter
Idling the Engine During Flight

EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE GAUGE 2-18

AIRCRAFT DOCUMENTS, MAINTENANCE, AND INSPECTIONS 2-18

Aircraft Owner Responsibilities
Certificate of Aircraft Registration
Airworthiness Certificate
Aircraft Maintenance
Inspections:
Annual Inspection
100-Hour Inspection
Other Inspection Programs
Preflight Inspection
Preventive Maintenance
Repairs and Alterations
Deferred Repair
Special Flight Permits
Airworthiness Directives

THE PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM AND ASSOCIATED INSTRUMENTS 3-1

Impact Pressure Chamber and Lines
Static Pressure Chamber and Lines
Altimeter
Principles of Operation
Effect of Nonstandard Pressure and Temperature
Setting the Altimeter
Types of Altitude
Vertical Speed Indicator
Principle of Operation
Airspeed Indicator
Kinds of Airspeed
Indicated Airspeed
Calibrated Airspeed
True Airspeed
Airspeed Indicator Markings
Other Airspeed Limitations

COMPUTERIZED AIRCRFAFT 3-5

The Integrated Flight Display

GYROSCOPIC FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS 3-6

Sources of Power for Gyroscopic Operation
Vacuum or Pressure System
Engine-Driven Vacuum Pump
Gyroscopic Principles
Turn Coordinator
The Heading Indicator
The Attitude Indicator

MAGNETIC COMPASS 3-10

Compass Errors
Variation
Deviation
Using the Magnetic Compass

WEIGHT CONTROL 4-1

Effects of Weight Weight Changes

BALANCE, STABILITY, AND CENTER OF GRAVITY 4-2

Effects of Adverse Balance
Management of Weight and Balance Control
Terms and Definitions
Control of LoadingGeneral Aviation Airplanes
Basic Principles of Weight and Balance Computations
Weight and Balance Restrictions

DETERMINING LOADED WEIGHT AND CENTER OF GRAVITY 4-6

Computational Method
Graph Method
Table Method
Shifting, Adding, and Removing Weight
Weight Shifting
Weight Addition or Removal

AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE 4-10

Density Altitude
Effect of Density Altitude on Engine Power and Propeller Efficiency
Humidity
Effect of Wind on Airplane Performance
Runway Surface Condition and Gradient
Ground Effect
Use of Performance Charts
Interpolation
Performance Charts
Density Altitude Charts
Takeoff Data Charts
Climb and Cruise Performance Data
Landing Performance Data
Combined Graphs

STARTING THE ENGINE 4-17

Engines Equipped with a Starter
Engines Not Equipped with a Starter
Idling the Engine During Flight

WEATHER OBSERVATIONS 5-1

Surface Aviation Weather Observations
Upper Air Observations
Radar Observation

WEATHER SERVICE OUTLETS 5-2

FAA Flight Service Station (FSS)
Pilot's Automatic Telephone Weather Answering System (PATWAS)
Transcribed Information Briefing Service (TIBS)
Direct User Access Terminal Service (DUATS)
Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB)

WEATHER BRIEFING 5-2

Standard Briefing
Abbreviated Briefing
Outlook Briefing

NATURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE 5-3

Oxygen and the Human Body
Significance of Atmospheric Pressure
Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure
Effect of Altitude on Atmospheric Pressure
Effect of Altitude on Flight
Effect of Differences in Air Density
Pressure Recorded in "Millibars"
Wind

THE CAUSE OF ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION 5-6

Wind Patterns
Convection Currents
Effect of Obstructions on Wind
Low-Level Wind Shear
Wind and Pressure Representation on Surface Weather Maps

MOISTURE AND TEMPERATURE 5-14

Relative Humidity
Temperature/Dewpoint Relationship
Methods by Which Air Reaches the Saturation Point
Effect of Temperature on Air Density
Effect of Temperature on Flight
Effect of High Humidity on Air Density
Effect of High Humidity on Flight
Dew and Frost
Fog
Clouds
Ceiling
Visibility
Precipitation

AIR MASSES AND FRONTS 5-19

Warm Front
Flight Toward an Approaching Warm Front
Cold Front
Fast-Moving Cold Fronts
Flight Toward an Approaching Cold Front
Comparison of Cold Fronts with Warm Fronts
Wind Shifts
Occluded Front

AVIATION WEATHER REPORTS, FORECASTS, AND WEATHER CHARTS 5-24

Aviation Weather Reports
Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR)
Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPS)
Radar Weather Reports (RAREPs)
Aviation Forecasts
Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF)
Area Forecast (FA)
In-Flight Weather Advisories
Significant Meteorological Information (SIGMET)
Airmen's Meteorological Information (AIRMET)
Convective Significant Meteorological Information
Winds and Temperatures Aloft Forecast (FD)
Weather Charts
Surface Analysis Chart
Weather Depiction Chart
Radar Summary Chart
Significant Weather Prognostic Charts

TYPES OF AIRPORTS 6-1

Controlled Airport
Uncontrolled Airport

SOURCES FOR AIRPORT DATA 6-1

Aeronautical Charts
Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD)
Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs)

AIRPORT MARKINGS AND SIGNS 6-3

Runway Markings
Taxiway Markings
Other Markings
Airport Signs

AIRPORT LIGHTING 6-4

Airport Beacon
Approach Light Systems
Visual Glideslope Indicators
Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI)
Other Glidepath Systems
Runway Lighting
Runway End Identifier Lights (REIL)
Runway Edge Lights
In-Runway Lighting
Control of Airport Lighting
Taxiway Lights
Obstruction Lights

WIND DIRECTION INDICATORS 6-8

RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 6-8

Radio License
Radio Equipment
Radio Procedures
Lost Communication Procedures

AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES 6-11

Primary Radar
Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System (ATCRBS)
Transponder
Radar Traffic Information Service

WAKE TURBULENCE 6-13

Vortex Generation
Vortex Strength
Vortex Behavior
Vortex Avoidance Procedures

COLLISION AVOIDANCE 6-14

Clearing Procedures

CONTROLLED AIRSPACE 7-1

Class A Airspace
Class B Airspace
Class C Airspace
Class D Airspace
Class E Airspace

UNCONTROLLED AIRSPACE 7-3

Class G Airspace

SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE 7-3

Prohibited Areas
Restricted Areas
Warning Areas
Military Operation Areas
Alert Areas
Controlled Firing Areas
National Security Areas

OTHER AIRSPACE AREAS 7-4

Airport Advisory Areas
Military Training Routes
Temporary Flight Restrictions
Parachute Jump Areas
Published VFR Routes

AERONAUTICAL CHARTS 8-1

Sectional Charts
Visual Flight Rule (VFR) Terminal Area Charts
World Aeronautical Charts

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE (MERIDIANS AND PARALLELS) 8-3

Time Zones
Measurement of Direction
Variation
Deviation

EFFECT OF WIND 8-7

BASIC CALCULATIONS 8-8

Converting Minutes to Equivalent Hours
Converting Knots to Miles Per Hour
Fuel Consumption
Flight Computers
Plotter

PILOTAGE 8-9

DEAD RECKONING 8-11

The Wind Triangle or Vector Analysis

FLIGHT PLANNING 8-13

Assembling Necessary Material
Weather Check
Use of the Airport/Facility Directory
Airplane Flight Manual or Pilot's Operating Handbook

CHARTING THE COURSE 8-15

Steps in Charting the Course

FILING A VFR FLIGHT PLAN 8-17

RADIO NAVIGATION 8-18

Very High Frequency (VHF) Omnidirectional Range (VOR)
Using the VOR
Tracking with Omni
Tips on Using the VOR
Automatic Direction Finder
Other Navigational Systems

OBTAINING A MEDICAL CERTIFICATE 9-1

HEALTH FACTORS AFFECTING PILOT PERFORMANCE 9-2

Alcohol
Fatigue
Anxiety
Stress
Emotion
Tobacco

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS WHICH AFFECT PILOT PERFORMANCE 9-3

Hypoxia
Hyperventilation in Flight
Middle Ear Discomfort or Pain
Spatial Disorientation and Illusions in Flight
Motion Sickness
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
Decompression Sickness After Scuba Diving
Vision in Flight